Can An Animal Be Both Predator And Prey

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A juvenile Ruby-tailed Hawk eating a California vole

File:MNP Python at Moyer.jpg

Indian Python swallowing a small Chital deer at Mudumalai National Park

File:Ants eating cicada, jjron 22.11.2009.jpg

Meat ants feeding on a cicada; some species tin prey on individuals of far greater size, particularly when working cooperatively

In environmental, animal predatory behavior describes a biological interaction where a predator (an organism that is hunting) feeds on its prey (the organism that is attacked).^[1] Predators may or may non kill their prey prior to feeding on them, but the act of predation oftentimes results in the death of its casualty and the eventual absorption of the casualty'southward tissue through consumption.^[ii] Other categories of consumption are herbivory (eating parts of plants) and detritivory, the consumption of dead organic material (detritus). All these consumption categories fall under the rubric of consumer-resource systems.^[3] It can oftentimes exist difficult to separate various types of feeding behaviors.^[one] For example, some parasitic species prey on a host organism and then lay their eggs on it for their offspring to feed on information technology while it continues to live or on its decaying corpse after it has died. The primal characteristic of predation still is the predator's direct impact on the casualty population. On the other hand, detritivores merely eat dead organic material arising from the disuse of dead individuals and have no direct touch on the "donor" organism(south).

Selective pressures imposed on one another often leads to an evolutionary artillery race between casualty and predator, resulting in various antipredator adaptations. Means of classifying predation surveyed here include grouping by trophic level or diet, by specialization, and past the nature of the predator'due south interaction with prey.

Contents

• one Functional classification
  • i.one Truthful predation
  • 1.two Grazing
  • ane.3 Parasitism
  • ane.4 Parasitoidism
  • ane.5 Degree of specialization
  • 1.6 Trophic level
  • 1.7 Predation equally competition
• 2 Ecological role
• 3 Adaptations and behavior
  • 3.1 Predator
  • 3.2 Antipredator adaptations
    • 3.two.1 Aggression
    • 3.two.2 Mobbing beliefs
    • 3.two.iii Advertising unprofitability
    • iii.2.4 Chemic defense
    • 3.2.5 Terrain Fearfulness Factor
• 4 Population dynamics
• 5 Development of predation
• six Humans and predation
  • vi.1 As predators
  • 6.ii Equally prey
  • six.3 In conservation
  • six.4 Biological pest control
• seven Meet also
• 8 References
• 9 Farther reading
• 10 External links

Functional classification

Nomenclature of predators by the extent to which they feed on and interact with their casualty is one way ecologists may wish to categorize the unlike types of predation. Instead of focusing on what they eat, this organization classifies predators by the way in which they eat, and the general nature of the interaction between predator and prey species. Ii factors are considered here: How close the predator and prey are physically (in the latter two cases the term casualty may exist replaced with host ). Additionally, whether or not the prey are directly killed by the predator is considered, with true predation and parasitoidism involving sure death.

True predation

Predators

Leopard (Panthera pardus pardus) killing a young Bushbuck (Tragelaphus sylvaticus) in the Kruger National Park.

King of beasts and cub eating a Cape buffalo.

A true predator can commonly be known as one which kills and eats some other organism. Whereas other types of predator all damage their casualty in some style, this form certainly kills them. Predators may hunt actively for prey, or sit and wait for casualty to approach within striking altitude, as in ambush predators. Some predators impale large prey and dismember or chew information technology prior to eating it, such equally a jaguar or a human; others may eat their (usually much smaller) prey whole, equally does a bottlenose dolphin swallowing a fish, or a snake, duck or stork swallowing a frog. Some animals that kill both large and small casualty for their size (domestic cats and dogs are prime examples) may practice either depending upon the circumstances; either would devour a big insect whole simply dismember a rabbit. Some predation entails venom which subdues a prey creature earlier the predator ingests the casualty by killing, which the box jellyfish does, or disabling it, found in the behavior of the cone shell. In some cases, the venom, as in rattlesnakes and some spiders, contributes to the digestion of the prey particular even before the predator begins eating. In other cases, the prey organism may die in the mouth or digestive system of the predator. Baleen whales, for instance, swallow millions of microscopic plankton at once, the prey existence broken down well after entering the whale. Seed predation and egg predation are other forms of truthful predation, every bit seeds and eggs correspond potential organisms. Predators of this classification need not eat prey entirely. For example, some predators cannot digest bones, while others can. Some may consume merely function of an organism, as in grazing (see below), but still consistently cause its direct decease.

Grazing

Master article: Grazing

Grazing organisms may also impale their casualty species, merely this is seldom the case. While some herbivores similar zooplankton live on unicellular phytoplankton and accept no choice but to impale their prey, many but eat a modest role of the plant. Grazing livestock may pull some grass out at the roots, but most is simply grazed upon, assuasive the institute to regrow again. Kelp is frequently grazed in subtidal kelp forests, but regrows at the base of operations of the bract continuously to cope with browsing pressure. Animals may besides be 'grazed' upon; female mosquitos land on hosts briefly to proceeds sufficient proteins for the evolution of their offspring. Starfish may be grazed on, beingness capable of regenerating lost arms.

Parasitism

Main article: Parasitism

Parasites can at times be hard to distinguish from grazers. Their feeding behavior is like in many ways, withal they are noted for their close clan, with their host species. While a grazing species such as an elephant may travel many kilometers in a unmarried day, grazing on many plants in the procedure, parasites class very close associations with their hosts, usually having but one or at most a few in their lifetime. This close living arrangement may be described by the term symbiosis, "living together", but unlike mutualism the clan significantly reduces the fitness of the host. Parasitic organisms range from the macroscopic mistletoe, a parasitic plant, to microscopic internal parasites such as cholera. Some species however have more loose associations with their hosts. Lepidoptera (butterfly and moth) larvae may feed parasitically on merely a single found, or they may graze on several nearby plants. It is therefore wise to treat this nomenclature system as a continuum rather than iv isolated forms.

Parasitoidism

Main article: Parasitoid

Parasitoids are organisms living in or on their host and feeding direct upon information technology, eventually leading to its death. They are much like parasites in their close symbiotic relationship with their host or hosts. Similar the previous ii classifications parasitoid predators do not kill their hosts instantly. Nonetheless, unlike parasites, they are very like to true predators in that the fate of their prey is quite inevitably death. A well known example of a parasitoids are the ichneumon wasps, solitary insects living a gratis life as an adult, then laying eggs on or in another species such as a caterpillar. Its larva(e) feed on the growing host causing it piddling harm at first, but shortly devouring the internal organs until finally destroying the nervous organisation resulting in prey death. By this stage the young wasp(s) are developed sufficiently to motility to the adjacent stage in their life bike. Though limited mainly to the insect order Hymenoptera, Diptera and Coleoptera parasitoids make upwardly as much as 10% of all insect species.^{[four] [five]}

Caste of specialization

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Further data: Generalist and specialist species

File:Cropped-gator-with-deer.jpg

An opportunistic Alligator swims with a deer.

Among predators there is a large degree of specialization. Many predators specialize in hunting but 1 species of prey. Others are more opportunistic and will kill and eat nigh anything (examples: humans, leopards, and dogs). The specialists are usually particularly well suited to capturing their preferred casualty. The prey in plough, are frequently as suited to escape that predator. This is called an evolutionary artillery race and tends to keep the populations of both species in equilibrium. Some predators specialize in certain classes of prey, not just single species. Some will switch to other prey (with varying degrees of success) when the preferred target is extremely deficient, and they may also resort to scavenging or a herbivorous nutrition if possible.^{[citation needed]}

Trophic level

File:The mantis which eats a Bee20080829.jpg

Mantis (Tenodera aridifolia) eating a bee.

Predators are oft another organism's casualty, and as well prey are often predators. Though blue jays prey on insects, they may in turn be prey for cats and snakes, which, in the latter's example, may themselves be the prey of hawks. One way of classifying predators is by trophic level. Organisms which feed on autotrophs, the producers of the trophic pyramid, are known as herbivores or primary consumers; those that feed on heterotrophs such as animals are known as secondary consumers. Secondary consumers are a blazon of carnivore, but there are also tertiary consumers eating these carnivores, quartary consumers eating them, and then along. Because only a fraction of energy is passed on to the adjacent level, this bureaucracy of predation must end somewhere, and very seldom goes higher than five or six levels, and may go only equally high as 3 trophic levels (for instance, a lion that preys upon big herbivores such as wildebeest which in turn swallow grasses). A predator at the tiptop of whatever food chain (that is, one that is preyed upon by no organism) is called an noon predator; examples include the orca, sperm whale, anaconda, Komodo dragon, tiger, lion, tiger shark, Nile crocodile, and almost eagles -- and even omnivorous humans and grizzly bears. An noon predator in i surround may not retain this position as a acme predator if introduced to some other habitat, such equally a domestic dog among alligators or a snapping turtle among jaguars; a predatory species introduced into an area where it faces no predators, such as a domestic cat or a dog in some insular environments, can become an apex predator past default.

Many organisms (of which humans are prime examples) eat from multiple levels of the food chain and thus make this nomenclature problematic. A carnivore may eat both secondary and tertiary consumers, and its prey may itself be difficult to allocate for like reasons. Organisms showing both carnivory and herbivory are known as omnivores. Even herbivores such every bit the giant panda may supplement their nutrition with meat. Scavenging of feces provides a significant function of the diet of some of the most fearsome predators. Carnivorous plants would exist very difficult to fit into this nomenclature, producing their own food but also digesting anything that they may trap. Organisms which eat detritivores or parasites would also be difficult to allocate by such a scheme.

Predation every bit competition

An alternative view offered by Richard Dawkins is of predation as a course of competition: the genes of both the predator and casualty are competing for the trunk (or 'survival machine') of the casualty organism.^[6] This is best understood in the context of the factor centered view of development. Another fashion in which predation and contest are connected is throughout intraguild predation. Intraguild predators are those that impale and eat other predators of unlike species at the aforementioned trophic level, and thus that are potential competitors.^[7]

Ecological part

Predators may increase the biodiversity of communities by preventing a single species from becoming dominant. Such predators are known every bit keystone species and may have a profound influence on the balance of organisms in a item ecosystem. Introduction or removal of this predator, or changes in its population density, can have desperate cascading effects on the equilibrium of many other populations in the ecosystem. For instance, grazers of a grassland may prevent a single dominant species from taking over.^[8]

The emptying of wolves from Yellowstone National Park had profound impacts on the trophic pyramid. Without predation, herbivores began to over-graze many woody scan species, affecting the area's plant populations. Additionally, wolves frequently kept animals from grazing in riparian areas, which protected beavers from having their food sources encroached upon. The removal of wolves had a direct issue on beaver populations, as their habitat became territory for grazing.^[ix] Furthermore, predation keeps hydrological features such as creeks and streams in normal working guild. Increased browsing on willows lenr and conifers along Blacktail Creek due to a lack of predation resulted in channel incision because those species helped wearisome the water down and hold the soil in identify.^[ix]

Adaptations and behavior

The human activity of predation tin be cleaved down into a maximum of four stages: Detection of casualty, attack, capture and finally consumption.^[10] The human relationship between predator and prey is 1 which is typically benign to the predator, and detrimental to the prey species. Sometimes, nonetheless, predation has indirect benefits to the prey species,^[11] though the individuals preyed upon themselves do not benefit.^[12] This means that, at each applicable stage, predator and prey species are in an evolutionary arms race to maximize their respective abilities to obtain food or avoid being eaten. This interaction has resulted in a vast array of adaptations in both groups.

Camouflage of the dead leaf mantis makes it less visible to both its predators and prey.

One accommodation helping both predators and prey avoid detection is cover-up, a form of crypsis where species take an appearance which helps them blend into the groundwork. Camouflage consists of not but color, but as well shape and design. The groundwork upon which the organism is seen can be both its environment (eastward.thou. the praying mantis to the correct resembling expressionless leaves) or other organisms (eastward.grand. zebras' stripes blend in with each other in a herd, making it difficult for lions to focus on a single target). The more than convincing camouflage is, the more likely it is that the organism will go unseen.

Mimicry in Automeris io .

Mimicry is a related phenomenon where an organism has a like appearance to some other species. I such instance is the drone fly, which looks a lot like a bee, still is completely harmless equally it cannot sting at all. Another example of batesian mimicry is the io moth, (Automeris io), which has markings on its wings which resemble an owl's eyes. When an insectivorous predator disturbs the moth, information technology reveals its hind wings, temporarily startling the predator and giving it time to escape. Predators may also use mimicry to lure their prey, even so. Female fireflies of the genus Photuris , for example, copy the light signals of other species, thereby attracting male fireflies which are and then captured and eaten (see ambitious mimicry).^[xiii]

Predator

File:Stud 327 with Blesbuck.jpg

A South Communist china tiger (Panthera tigris amoyensis) as the predator feeding on the blesbuck, the casualty.

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Corking blueish heron with prey.

File:Cadger prey.jpg

Lizard with casualty.

While successful predation results in a proceeds of energy, hunting invariably involves energetic costs as well. When hunger is not an issue, most predators will generally not seek to attack prey since the costs outweigh the benefits. For case, a large predatory fish like a shark that is well fed in an aquarium will typically ignore the smaller fish swimming around it (while the prey fish take advantage of the fact that the apex predator is apparently uninterested). Surplus killing represents a divergence from this type of behaviour. The treatment of consumption in terms of cost-benefit assay is known as optimal foraging theory, and has been quite successful in the study of creature behavior. Costs and benefits are more often than not considered in energy gain per unit time, though other factors are also important, such as essential nutrients that accept no caloric value but are necessary for survival and health.

Social predation offers the possibility of predators to impale creatures larger than those that members of the species could overpower singly. Lions, hyenas, wolves, dholes, African wild dogs, and piranhas tin can kill large herbivores that single animals of the same species could never dispatch. Social predation allows some animals to organize hunts of creatures that would easily escape a single predator; thus chimpanzees tin prey upon colobus monkeys, and Harris's Hawks tin cut off all possible escapes for a doomed rabbit. Extreme specialization of roles is evident in some hunting that requires co-functioning between predators of very dissimilar species: humans with the aid of falcons or dogs, or fishing with cormorants or dogs. Social predation is often very circuitous beliefs, and not all social creatures (for example, domestic cats) perform it. Even without complex intelligence but instinct alone, some pismire species tin can destroy much-larger creatures.

Size-selective predation involves predators preferring prey of a certain size. Large prey may bear witness troublesome for a predator, while small casualty might evidence difficult to find and in any case provide less of a reward. This has led to a correlation between the size of predators and their casualty.^[14] Size may besides act as a refuge for large prey, for example developed elephants are generally safe from predation by lions, but juveniles are vulnerable.^[14]

It has been observed that well-fed predator animals in a lax captivity (for instance, pet or farm animals) volition unremarkably differentiate between putative casualty animals who are familiar co-inhabitants in the same human area from wild ones exterior the expanse. This interaction tin range from peaceful coexistence to close companionship; motivation to ignore the predatory instinct may result from mutual advantage or fear of reprisal from human masters who have made articulate that harming co-inhabitants volition non be tolerated. Pet cats and pet mice, for example, may live together in the same human residence without incident equally companions. Pet cats and pet dogs under human being mastership often depend on each other for warmth, companionship, and even protection, particularly in rural areas.

Antipredator adaptations

Main article: Antipredator accommodation

Antipredator adaptations have evolved in casualty populations due to the selective pressures of predation over long periods of fourth dimension.

Aggression

Predatory animals frequently use their usual methods of attacking prey to inflict or to threaten grievous injury to their own predators. The electric eel uses the aforementioned electrical current to kill prey and to defend itself against animals (anacondas, caimans, jaguars, egrets, cougars, giant otters, humans, and dogs) that ordinarily prey upon fish similar to an electrical eel in size; the electric eel thus remains an apex predator in a predator-rich environment. A predator small enough to be prey for others, the domestic true cat uses its formidable teeth and claws as weapons against animals that might misfile a cat with easier prey. Many non-predatory prey animals, such as a zebra, can requite a stiff boot that tin can maim or impale, while others charge with tusks or horns.

Mobbing behavior

Main article: Mobbing behavior

Mobbing beliefs occurs when members of a species bulldoze away their predator by cooperatively attacking or harassing it. Nearly oftentimes seen in birds, mobbing is likewise seen in other social animals. For case, nesting gull colonies are widely seen to assault intruders, including humans.^[x] Costs of mobbing beliefs include the risk of engaging with predators, as well as energy expended in the process, but it tin assistance the survival of members of a species.

While mobbing has evolved independently in many species, it tends to exist present merely in those whose young are oftentimes preyed on, peculiarly birds. Information technology may complement cryptic behavior in the offspring themselves, such equally cover-up and hiding. Mobbing calls may exist fabricated prior to or during date in harassment.

Mobbing can be an interspecies action: it is common for birds to respond to mobbing calls of a different species. Many birds will show up at the sight of mobbing and watch and phone call, but non participate. It should besides exist noted that some species can be on both ends of a mobbing attack. Crows are frequently mobbed past smaller songbirds as they prey on eggs and immature from these birds' nests, simply these aforementioned crows will cooperate with smaller birds to bulldoze abroad hawks or larger mammalian predators. On occasion, birds will mob animals that pose no threat.

Ad unprofitability

File:Thompson's Gazelle.jpeg

Thomson'due south gazelles exhibit stotting behavior.

A Thomson'south gazelle seeing a predator approach may kickoff to run away, but then slow down and stot. Stotting is jumping into the air with the legs direct and strong, and the white rear fully visible. Stotting is maladaptive for outrunning predators; testify suggests that stotting signals an unprofitable chase. For instance, cheetahs abandon more than hunts when the gazelle stots, and in the event they do requite chase, they are far less likely to brand a kill.^[xv]

Aposematism, where organisms are brightly colored as a warning to predators, is the antithesis of cover-up. Some organisms pose a threat to their predators—for example they may be poisonous, or able to harm them physically. Aposematic coloring involves bright, easily recognizable and unique colors and patterns. Upon being harmed (e.g., stung) past their prey, the appearance in such an organism will be remembered as something to avert. While that detail prey organism may be killed, the coloring benefits the prey species as a whole.

Domestic cats, animals like in size to such prey species as rabbits, make a hissing sound reminiscent of a ophidian, advertising that they tin put up formidable defenses for their size. Such can deter confrontations harmful to both the cat and to an animal in search of small animals as casualty.

Chemical defense

Principal commodity: Chemic defense

Some organisms take evolved chemic weapons which are effective deterrents against predation. It is most common in insects, but the skunk is a particularly dramatic mammalian example. Other examples include the Bombardier protrude which can accurately shoot a predator with a stream of boiling poison, the Ornate moth which excretes a frothy alkaloid mixture, and the Pacific beetle cockroach sprays a quinone mixture from modified spiracles.

Terrain Fearfulness Factor

The "terrain fear factor" is an idea which assesses the risks associated with predator/prey encounters. This idea suggests that casualty will change their usual habits to arrange to the terrain and its result on the species' predation. For example, a species may forage in a terrain with a lower predation risk as opposed to i with high predation risk.^[16]

Population dynamics

It is fairly articulate that predators tend to lower the survival and fecundity of their prey, but on a higher level of organization, populations of predator and prey species also collaborate. It is obvious that predators depend on prey for survival, and this is reflected in predator populations beingness affected past changes in prey populations. It is non so obvious, however, that predators affect prey populations.^[17] Eating a prey organism may simply brand room for another if the prey population is approaching its carrying chapters.

The population dynamics of predator-prey interactions can be modelled using the Lotka–Volterra equations. These provide a mathematical model for the cycling of predator and prey populations. Predators tend to select young, weak, and ill individuals.^[xviii]

Evolution of predation

Predation appears to have become a major selection force per unit area shortly before the Cambrian flow—around 550 million years ago —as evidenced past the virtually simultaneous evolution of calcification in animals and algae,^[nineteen] and predation-avoiding burrowing. However, predators had been grazing on micro-organisms since at least 1000 meg years ago .^{[twenty] [twenty] [21] [22] [23]}

Humans and predation

As predators

Humans are omnivorous. They chase and trap animals using weapons and tools similar snares, clubs, spears, line-fishing gear, firearms to boats and motor vehicles. Humans fifty-fifty utilise other predatory species, (such as dogs, cormorants, and falcons) in hunting and angling; some people even enlist such non-predatory beasts, like horses, camels, and elephants in getting approaches to prey.

Humans have reshaped huge expanses of the world equally ranges and farms for the raising of livestock, poultry, and fish to be eaten as meat. However, information technology can be debated whether or not harvesting livestock fits strictly in the definition of predation.

Human raising and eating of livestock is function of agriculture, and involves the feeding of and caring for animals, followed by their being slaughtered with an appropriate tool, cutting up, and cooking. In many cultures, animals are hunted or farmed past specialists (such every bit ranchers or fishermen), brought to a market place, and sold in pieces to the people who really consume the meat.

Every bit casualty

File:Addo Elephant National Park-005.jpg

Signage in Addo Elephant National Park reminding humans equally to their status of prey.

A lone naked human is at a physical disadvantage to other comparable apex predators in areas such every bit speed, bone density, weight, and physical strength. Humans also lack innate weaponry such as claws. Without crafted weapons, club, or cleverness, a lone man can hands be defeated past fit predatory animals, such as wild dogs, large cats and bears. There are even recorded instances of lone humans beingness preyed upon past big carnivores (come across Human-eater). Yet, humans are non solitary creatures; they are social animals with highly developed social behaviors. Further, humans and their ancestors (such as Man erectus ) take been using stone tools and weapons for well over a million years. Anatomically modern humans have been apex predators since they get-go evolved, and many species of carnivorous megafauna actively avoid interacting with humans; the primary ecology competitor for a human is other humans. The one subspecies of cannibal megafauna that does collaborate frequently with humans in predatory roles is the domestic dog, but normally as a partner in predation specially if they chase together. Cannibalism has occurred in various places, amongst diverse cultures, and for various reasons. At least a few people, such as the Donner party, are said to take resorted to information technology in desperation.

In conservation

Predators are an important consideration in matters relating to conservation. In many cases, the predators are not only apex predators, but are also endangered species themselves equally they have lower population sizes than prey species and are much more than vulnerable to extinction because of their population size, competition with other predators, and the fluctuations in prey populations.

Having modest population size is a feature almost universally inherent to apex predators. Depression numbers wouldn't be a problem for apex predators if in that location was an abundance of casualty and no competition or niche overlap, a scenario that is rarely- if ever- encountered in the wild. The competitive exclusion principle states that if 2 species' ecological niches overlap, there is a very high likelihood of contest as both species are in direct competition for the same resource. This gene alone could lead to the extirpation of one or both species, but is compounded by the added factor of prey abundance.

A predator's event on its casualty species is difficult to see in the short-term. Yet, if observed over a longer catamenia of time, it is seen that the population of a predator volition correlationally rising and fall with the population of its casualty in a cycle like to the smash and bust wheel of economic science. If a predator overhunts its casualty, the prey population will lower to numbers that are besides scarce for the predators to find. This will crusade the predator population to dip, decreasing the predation pressure on the prey population. The decrease in predators will allow the small number of prey left to slowly increment their population to somewhere around their previous abundance, which will let the predator population to increase in response to the greater availability of resource. If a predator hunts its prey species to numbers also depression to sustain the population in the short term, they can cause non only the extinction or extirpation of the casualty, but also the extinction of their own species, a phenomenon known as coextinction. This is a adventure that wildlife conservationists run into when introducing predators to prey that have not coevolved with the aforementioned or similar predators. This possibility depends largely on how well and how fast the prey species is able to adapt to the introduced predator. 1 style that this adventure tin be avoided is if the predator finds an alternative prey species or if an culling prey species is introduced (something that ecologists and environmentalists try to avoid whenever possible). An culling prey species would help to lift some of the predation pressure from the initial prey species, giving the population a chance to recover, however it does non guarantee that the initial casualty species will be able to recover as the initial prey population may have been hunted to beneath sustainable numbers or to complete extinction.

Biological pest control

Main commodity: Biological pest control

Predators may be put to employ in conservation efforts to control introduced species. Although the aim in this situation is to remove the introduced species entirely, keeping its abundance down is oftentimes the just possibility. Predators from its natural range may exist introduced to control populations, though in some cases this has footling effect, and may even cause unforeseen problems. Too their utilise in conservation biology, predators are as well important for controlling pests in agriculture. Natural predators are an environmentally friendly and sustainable way of reducing damage to crops, and are one alternative to the use of chemic agents such as pesticides.

See as well

• Ambush predators
• Animate being foraging behavior
• Animal feeding beliefs
• Apex predator
• Assault behavior
• Coevolution
• Crypsis
• Bird of casualty
• Consumer-resources systems
• Instinctive behavior
• Overpopulation in wild animals
• Pack hunter
• Prey detection
• Casualty drive
• Threat postures
• Tonic immobility
• Trophic cascade

References

1. ↑ ^{1.0 1.1} Begon, M., Townsend, C., Harper, J. (1996). Ecology: Individuals, populations and communities (Third edition). Blackwell Science, London. ISBN 0-86542-845-Ten, ISBN 0-632-03801-2, ISBN 0-632-04393-eight.
2. ↑ Encyclopædia Britannica: "predation"
3. ↑ Getz, W. (2011). Biomass transformation webs provide a unified approach to consumer–resources modelling. Ecology Messages, DOI:10.1111/j.1461-0248.2010.01566.x .
4. ↑ Godfray, H.C.J. (1994). Parasitoids: Behavioral and Evolutionary Environmental. Princeton University Press, Princeton. ISBN 0-691-03325-0, ISBN 0-691-00047-6. P. 20.
5. ↑ Feener, Jr., Donald H., Brian Five. Brown (January 1997). Diptera as Parasitoids. Annual Review of Entomology 42: 73–97.
6. ↑ Dawkins, R. (1976). The Selfish Gene. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-286092-5.
7. ↑ Fedriani J. M., Fuller T. K., Sauvajot R. Thou., York E. C. (2000). Competition and intraguild predation amidst three sympatric carnivores. Oecologia 125 (2): 258–270.
8. ↑ Botkin, D. and E. Keller (2003). Enrivonmental Science: Globe as a living planet. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 0-471-38914-v. P.2.
9. ↑ ^{9.0 ix.1} William J. Ripple and Robert 50. Beschta. "Wolves and the Environmental of Fear: Tin can Predation Risk Construction Ecosystems?" 2004.
10. ↑ ^{10.0 10.ane} Alcock, J. (1998). Animal Behavior: An Evolutionary Approach (6th edition). Sunderland, Mass.: Sinauer Assembly, Inc. ISBN 0-87893-009-4. Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "Alcock" defined multiple times with different content
11. ↑ Bondavalli C., Ulanowicz R.Eastward. (1999). Unexpected effects of predators upon their casualty: The case of the American alligator. Ecosystems 2: 49–63.
12. ↑ Dawkins, R. (2004). The Ancestor'south Tale. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 0-618-00583-8.
13. ↑ Lloyd J.Eastward. (1965). Aggressive Mimicry in Photuris: Firefly Femmes Fatales. Science 149 (3684): 653–654.
14. ↑ ^{14.0 14.1} Molles, Manuel C., Jr. (2002). Ecology: Concepts and Applications, International, New York: The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
15. ↑ Caro T. M. (1986). The functions of stotting in Thomson's gazelles: Some tests of the predictions. Beast Behaviour 34 (3): 663–684.
16. ↑ Ripple William J., Beschta Robert L. (2004). Wolves and the environmental of fearfulness: Can predation risk construction ecosystems?. BioScience 54 (8): 755–66.
17. ↑ Horning, One thousand., Mellish, J.E. (2012). Predation on an Upper Trophic Marine Predator, the Steller Ocean King of beasts: Evaluating High Juvenile Bloodshed in a Density Dependent Conceptual Framework. PLoS ONE 7 (1).
18. ↑ Genovart M, Negre North, Tavecchia 1000, Bistuer A, Parpal L, Oro D. (2010). The young, the weak and the sick: evidence of natural selection by predation. PLoS One. 19;5(3):e9774. DOI:10.1371/journal.pone.0009774 PMID 20333305
19. ↑ Grant, South. Due west. F.; Knoll, A. H.; Germs, G. J. B. (1991). Probable Calcified Metaphytes in the Latest Proterozoic Nama Group, Namibia: Origin, Diagenesis, and Implications. Journal of Paleontology 65 (i): 1–xviii.
20. ↑ ^{20.0 twenty.1} Bengtson, S. (2002). The fossil record of predation. The Paleontological Society Papers eight (PDF), 289–317, The Paleontological Society. URL accessed 2007-12-01.
21. ↑ McNamara, K.J. (20 December 1996). Dating the Origin of Animals. Science 274 (5295): 1993–1997.
22. ↑ Awramik, South.Chiliad. (nineteen Nov 1971). Precambrian columnar stromatolite variety: Reflection of metazoan appearance. Scientific discipline 174 (4011): 825–827.
23. ↑ Stanley (2008). Predation defeats competition on the seafloor. Paleobiology 34 (1): i.

Further reading

• Barbosa, P. and I. Castellanos (eds.) (2004). Ecology of predator-casualty interactions. New York: Oxford University Printing. ISBN 0-19-517120-9.
• Curio, E. (1976). The ethology of predation. Berlin; New York: Springer-Verlag. ISBN 0-387-07720-0.

External links

Look upward this page on
Wiktionary: predation

Expect up this page on
Wiktionary: predate

• Wolfram Demonstrations Project: Predator-Prey Equations by Eric Westward. Weisstein
• Predators, three articles by Olivia Judson, NY Times, Sept. & Oct., 2009

five·d·e Feeding behaviours
Carnivores	adult Hematophagy  · Insectivore · Lepidophagy  · Man-eater  · Molluscivore  · Mucophagy  · Myrmecophagy  · Ophiophagy  · Piscivore  · Spongivore reproductive Oophagy  · Ovophagy  · Paedophagy  · Placentophagy  · Breastfeeding · Weaning cannibalistic Cannibalism · Homo cannibalism · Self-cannibalism  · Sexual cannibalism	Blood-red-tailed hawk eating a California meadow vole
Herbivores	Folivore  · Frugivore  · Graminivore  · Granivore  · Nectarivore  · Palynivore  · Xylophagy  · Osteophagy
Others	Phagocytosis · Bacterivore  · Coprophagia · Detritivore · Fungivore  · Geophagy · Omnivore
Methods	Apex predator · Bottom feeding  · Browsing  · Hypercarnivore  · Intraguild predation · Filter feeding  · Grazing · Kleptoparasitism · Scavenging · Trophallaxis
Predation · Antipredator adaptation · Category:Eating behaviors

v·d·eastward Inter-species biological interactions in ecology
Amensalism  · Commensalism · Mutualism · Neutralism · Synnecrosis · Predation(Carnivory • Herbivory • Parasitism • Parasitoidism • Cheating)  · Symbiosis · Competition

Template:Modelling ecosystems

Topics in evolutionary ecology This box:view •talk •edit
Patterns of development: Convergent evolution • Evolutionary relay • Parallel evolution
Colour and shape: Aposematism • Mimicry • Crypsis
Interactions betwixt species: Mutualism • Cooperation • Predation • Parasitism

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Source: https://psychology.fandom.com/wiki/Animal_predatory_behavior

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